Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, BIOMATERIAŁY, magisterka
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Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering
About the authors
been Vice President of the Institute of Materials and
President of the Federated European Materials Soci-
eties. Since retirement he has been academic consultant
for a number of institutions both in the UK and over-
seas.
ProfessorR.E.Smallman
After gaining his PhD in 1953, Professor Smallman
spent five years at the Atomic Energy Research Estab-
lishment at Harwell, before returning to the University
of Birmingham where he became Professor of Physi-
cal Metallurgy in 1964 and Feeney Professor and Head
of the Department of Physical Metallurgy and Science
of Materials in 1969. He subsequently became Head
of the amalgamated Department of Metallurgy and
Materials (1981), Dean of the Faculty of Science and
Engineering, and the first Dean of the newly-created
Engineering Faculty in 1985. For five years he was
Vice-Principal of the University (1987 – 92).
He has held visiting professorship appointments at
the University of Stanford, Berkeley, Pennsylvania
(USA), New South Wales (Australia), Hong Kong and
Cape Town and has received Honorary Doctorates
from the University of Novi Sad (Yugoslavia) and
the University of Wales. His research work has been
recognized by the award of the Sir George Beilby Gold
Medal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry and Institute
of Metals (1969), the Rosenhain Medal of the Institute
of Metals for contributions to Physical Metallurgy
(1972) and the Platinum Medal, the premier medal of
the Institute of Materials (1989).
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
(1986), a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineer-
ing (1990) and appointed a Commander of the British
Empire (CBE) in 1992. A former Council Member of
the Science and Engineering Research Council, he has
R. J. Bishop
After working in laboratories of the automobile,
forging, tube-drawing and razor blade industries
(1944 – 59), Ray Bishop became a Principal Scientist
of the British Coal Utilization Research Association
(1959 – 68), studying superheater-tube corrosion and
mechanisms of ash deposition on behalf of boiler
manufacturers and the Central Electricity Generating
Board. He specialized in combustor simulation of
conditions within pulverized-fuel-fired power station
boilers and fluidized-bed combustion systems. He then
became a Senior Lecturer in Materials Science at
the Polytechnic (now University), Wolverhampton,
acting at various times as leader of C&G, HNC, TEC
and CNAA honours Degree courses and supervising
doctoral researches. For seven years he was Open
University Tutor for materials science and processing
in the West Midlands. In 1986 he joined the
School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of
Birmingham as a part-time Lecturer and was involved
in administration of the Federation of European
Materials Societies (FEMS). In 1995 and 1997 he
gave lecture courses in materials science at the Naval
Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Currently
he is an Honorary Lecturer at the University of
Birmingham.
Modern Physical Metallurgy
and Materials Engineering
Science, process, applications
Sixth Edition
R. E. Smallman,
CBE, DSc, FRS, FREng, FIM
R. J. Bishop,
PhD, CEng, MIM
OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI
Butterworth-Heinemann
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041
A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd
First published 1962
Second edition 1963
Reprinted 1965, 1968
Third edition 1970
Reprinted 1976 (twice), 1980, 1983
Fourth edition 1985
Reprinted 1990, 1992
Fifth edition 1995
Sixth edition 1999
Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd 1995, 1999
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any material form (including photocopy-
ing or storing in any medium by electronic means and
whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other
use of this publication) without the written permission of
the copyright holder except in accordance with the
provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the
copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any
part of this publication should be addressed to the
publishers
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 0 7506 4564 4
Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent, UK
Typeset by Laser Words, Madras, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bath Press, Avon
Contents
Preface
xi
3
Structural phases; their formation and
transitions
42
3.1 Crystallization from the melt 42
3.1.1 Freezing of a pure metal 42
3.1.2 Plane-front and dendritic
solidification at a cooled
surface 43
3.1.3 Forms of cast structure 44
3.1.4 Gas porosity and segregation 45
3.1.5 Directional solidification 46
3.1.6 Production of metallic single crystals
for research 47
3.2 Principles and applications of phase
diagrams 48
3.2.1 The concept of a phase 48
3.2.2 The Phase Rule 48
3.2.3 Stability of phases 49
3.2.4 Two-phase equilibria 52
3.2.5 Three-phase equilibria and
reactions 56
3.2.6 Intermediate phases 58
3.2.7 Limitations of phase diagrams 59
3.2.8 Some key phase diagrams 60
3.2.9 Ternary phase diagrams 64
3.3 Principles of alloy theory 73
3.3.1 Primary substitutional solid
solutions 73
3.3.2 Interstitial solid solutions 76
3.3.3 Types of intermediate phases 76
3.3.4 Order-disorder phenomena 79
3.4 The mechanism of phase changes 80
3.4.1 Kinetic considerations 80
3.4.2 Homogeneous nucleation 81
3.4.3 Heterogeneous nucleation 82
3.4.4 Nucleation in solids 82
1
The structure and bonding of atoms
1
1.1 The realm of materials science 1
1.2 The free atom 2
1.2.1 The four electron quantum
numbers 2
1.2.2 Nomenclature for electronic
states 3
1.3 The Periodic Table 4
1.4 Interatomic bonding in materials 7
1.5 Bonding and energy levels 9
2
Atomic arrangements in materials
11
2.1 The concept of ordering 11
2.2 Crystal lattices and structures 12
2.3 Crystal directions and planes 13
2.4 Stereographic projection 16
2.5 Selected crystal structures 18
2.5.1 Pure metals 18
2.5.2 Diamond and graphite 21
2.5.3 Coordination in ionic crystals 22
2.5.4 AB-type compounds 24
2.5.5 Silica 24
2.5.6 Alumina 26
2.5.7 Complex oxides 26
2.5.8 Silicates 27
2.6 Inorganic glasses 30
2.6.1 Network structures in glasses 30
2.6.2 Classification of constituent
oxides 31
2.7 Polymeric structures 32
2.7.1 Thermoplastics 32
2.7.2 Elastomers 35
2.7.3 Thermosets 36
2.7.4 Crystallinity in polymers 38
4
Defects in solids
84
4.1 Types of imperfection 84
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